Abstract. The electrical breakdown process in dielectric liquids for a point-to-plane gap configuration has been studied, using an image converter camera in conjunction with an image intensifier and a schlieren system. It is shown that the positive streamer has a tendency to keep its propagation velocity constant across the gap. The constant streamer velocity in benzene and toluene is equal to that of the accompanying shock wave. Discrete transition from primary streamer to fast secondary is occasionally observed for positive polarity. The aspect of negative streamer propagation in carbon tetrachloride is similar to that of the positive one. The development of the actual breakdown channel has also been observed in carbon tetrachloride. The results are consistent with models of a breakdown mechanism based on a field ionization process for positive polarity and an Auger-like electron emission process for negative polarity.

Abstract. Conduction currents and streamer initiation in cyclohexane with various additives have been investigated with fast impulses applied to a point-to-plane gap. The studied additives are perfluoro-n-hexane, N,N-dimethylaniline, 1-methylnaphthalene, di-n-propylether, 1,1-difluorocyclopentane and 1,4-benzoquinone, representing molecules with different electrochemical properties. We have used shadowgraphic imaging and a differential charge-measurement technique with a sensitivity of 0.1 pC to integrate currents induced to the point electrode, below and in the same voltage range where streamers first appeared. Effects on streamer initiation are found only for point anode streamers with the additive 1-methylnaphthalene, requiring higher voltages for initiation. We have observed transient conduction currents of measurable magnitudes in the nano to microampere range for voltages around initiation in all samples with a point anode and in 10 out of 21 samples with a point cathode. For a point anode, the more easily ionizable additives N,N-dimethylaniline and 1-methylnaphthalene induced somewhat larger currents. The results may be considered to support a hypothesis of electron avalanche induced streamer initiation, in that transient currents are induced by the ions left behind by the avalanches that are not sufficiently developed to initiate streamers.

It can be difficult to move from a static, pixel-based design approach to an elastic, relative method. Properly implemented, however, elastic design can be a viable option that enhances usability and accessibility without mandating design sacrifices. A pixel is an unscalable dot on a computer screen, whereas an em is a square of its font size. Because font sizes vary, the em is a relative unit that responds to users’ text-size preferences. It is perhaps easier to adopt a print-like, static approach to design because there is less to think about when dimensions don’t change. To employ an elastic approach, however, is to fully exploit the capabilities of computer displays and web browsers.

In this article, we will reconcile the designer’s requirement for accuracy with the user’s need to resize text on demand, arriving at a best practice that satisfies designers and users and works across browsers and platforms. [...] The next unit to try for text sizing is ems. The em is a true typographic unit, recommended by the W3C, and affords a precision keywords lack.

Although the title of this page suggests only liquid round corners can be made, the found method is also fitting for other applications. In fact it's appropriate for: * all kinds of liquid and transparent edges (round or not), and even * collapsible and transparent parts of images. You will find some other applications among the examples in the playgarden. I hope this will encourage your creativity. I think a lot more is possible!

So instead of leaving users at low resolutions with a scroll bar at the bottom of their screen (requiring them to constantly scroll left-to-right-to-left to read content or see ads), or leaving users at high resolutions with large amounts of white space outside of your content, consider building pages that scale to fit the user.

This article explains one method of achieving a successful liquid layout as well as providing basic definitions of liquid, fixed-width and em-driven layouts.